معرفی – تحلیل و نگارش قرارداد های تجاری بین المللی
Introduction
A contract may be defined as an agreement which is either enforced by law or recognized by law as affecting the legal rights or duties of the parties.
The law of contract is, therefore, primarily concerned with three questions:
Is there an agreement?
Is it one which should be legally recognized or enforced?
And how are such agreements enforced, or, in other words, what remedies are available to the injured party when a contract has been broken?
In this article our concern will be with the general rules, and to some extent with the modified form in which they apply to particular transactions.
Rules peculiar to particular transactions will not in general be discussed, nor will any attempt be made to give any systematic account of the rules governing any one or more particular or special contracts.
At the same time, it is necessary to warn the reader that the general “law of contract” is something of an abstraction since most contracts obviously relate to particular classes of transactions and since there is always some degree of danger in assuming that a “general rule applies (at least without modification) to a contract of the particular type under consideration.
ترجمه مفهومی دقیق
قرارداد را میتوان توافقی دانست که قانون آن را به رسمیت میشناسد یا اجرای آن را تضمین میکند و در نتیجه بر حقوق و تعهدات قانونی طرفین اثر میگذارد.
حقوق قراردادها اساساً به سه پرسش اصلی میپردازد:
آیا اساساً توافقی میان طرفین وجود دارد؟
آیا این توافق از نوعی است که باید از نظر قانونی معتبر و قابل اجرا شناخته شود؟
و در صورت نقض قرارداد، چه راهکارهای حقوقی (remedies) برای جبران خسارت طرف زیاندیده وجود دارد؟
در این مقاله تمرکز اصلی بر قواعد عمومی حقوق قراردادها است، هرچند تا حدی نیز بررسی میشود که این قواعد چگونه در معاملات خاص با تغییراتی اعمال میشوند.
قواعد ویژه مربوط به انواع خاص قراردادها به طور کلی بررسی نمیشوند و همچنین تلاشی برای ارائه شرح نظاممند از قواعد حاکم بر قراردادهای خاص صورت نمیگیرد.
در عین حال باید توجه داشت که اصطلاح «قانون عمومی قراردادها» تا حدی مفهومی انتزاعی است؛ زیرا بیشتر قراردادها در عمل به دستههای خاصی از معاملات مربوط میشوند و همیشه این خطر وجود دارد که تصور شود یک قاعده عمومی بدون تغییر بر همه انواع قراردادها قابل اعمال است.
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# Stage 2 — Memorization Sentences + ترجمه
A contract is an agreement recognized or enforced by law
قرارداد توافقی است که توسط قانون شناسایی یا اجرا میشود.
The law of contract deals with the legal rights and duties of the parties
حقوق قراردادها با حقوق و تعهدات قانونی طرفین سروکار دارد.
A key issue is when an agreement becomes legally enforceable.
مسئله اصلی این است که چه زمانی یک توافق قابلیت اجرای قانونی پیدا میکند.
Courts may enforce agreements when obligations are not performed.
دادگاهها زمانی که تعهدات اجرا نشوند ممکن است توافقها را اجرا کنند.
General rules of contract law apply to many transactions.
قواعد عمومی حقوق قراردادها بر بسیاری از معاملات اعمال میشوند.
However, specific transactions may have special rules.
با این حال برخی معاملات قواعد خاص خود را دارند.
The general law of contract is somewhat abstract.
قانون عمومی قراردادها تا حدی انتزاعی است.
Not every general rule applies equally to all contracts.
هر قاعده عمومی به طور یکسان بر همه قراردادها اعمال نمیشود.
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# Stage 3 — Key Legal Vocabulary
Contract
UK /ˈkɒntrækt/
US /ˈkɑːntrækt/
Oxford meaning
A written or spoken agreement.
a legally binding agreement between two or more parties.
Legal meaning
A legally binding agreement between parties.
معنی فارسی
قرارداد
Example
The parties entered into a contract.
—
Agreement
UK /əˈɡriːmənt/
US /əˈɡriːmənt/
Oxford meaning
A negotiated and accepted arrangement.
Legal meaning
Mutual assent between parties forming the basis of a contract.
a manifestation of mutual assent between two or more parties.
معنی فارسی
توافق
Example
The agreement was signed yesterday.
—
Enforce
UK /ɪnˈfɔːs/
US /ɪnˈfɔːrs/
Oxford meaning
To make a rule effective.
Legal meaning
To compel compliance through legal authority.
معنی فارسی
اجرا کردن
Example
Courts enforce valid contracts.
—
Legal rights
UK /ˈliːɡəl raɪts/
Oxford meaning
Rights recognized by law.
Legal meaning
Entitlements protected and enforceable by law.
معنی فارسی
حقوق قانونی
Example
The contract affects the legal rights of both parties.
—
Duties
UK /ˈdjuːtiz/
US /ˈduːtiz/
Oxford meaning
Obligations or responsibilities.
Legal meaning
Legal obligations imposed by law or contract.
معنی فارسی
تعهدات
Example
Each party has contractual duties.
—
Breach
UK /briːtʃ/
US /briːtʃ/
Oxford meaning
Breaking a rule or agreement.
Legal meaning
Failure to perform a contractual obligation.
معنی فارسی
نقض قرارداد
Example
The company was liable for breach of contract.
—
Damage / Damages
UK /ˈdæmɪdʒɪz/
US /ˈdæmɪdʒɪz/
Oxford meaning
Money claimed for loss or injury.
Legal meaning
Monetary compensation awarded by court.
معنی فارسی
خسارت
Example
The court awarded damages.
—
Abstraction
UK /æbˈstrækʃən/
US /æbˈstrækʃən/
Oxford meaning
A general idea rather than a concrete reality.
Legal meaning
A general theoretical concept in law.
معنی فارسی
مفهوم انتزاعی
Example
Contract law is sometimes treated as an abstraction.
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# Stage 4 — Legal Collocations + Mini Context
enter into a contract
منعقد کردن قرارداد
Example
The parties entered into a contract for the sale of goods.
ترجمه
طرفین قراردادی برای فروش کالا منعقد کردند.
—
enforce a contract
اجرای قرارداد
Example
The court may enforce the contract if one party refuses to perform.
ترجمه
اگر یکی از طرفین از اجرا خودداری کند دادگاه میتواند قرارداد را اجرا کند.
—
legal rights and duties
حقوق و تعهدات قانونی
Example
A contract defines the legal rights and duties of the parties.
ترجمه
قرارداد حقوق و تعهدات قانونی طرفین را تعیین میکند.
—
breach of contract
نقض قرارداد
Example
Failure to deliver the goods constitutes a breach of contract.
ترجمه
عدم تحویل کالا نقض قرارداد محسوب میشود.
—
award damages
اعطای خسارت
Example
The judge awarded damages to the injured party.
ترجمه
قاضی به طرف زیاندیده خسارت اعطا کرد.
—
general rule of contract law
قاعده عمومی حقوق قراردادها
Example
This principle is a general rule of contract law.
ترجمه
این اصل یک قاعده عمومی در حقوق قراردادها است.
—
particular transaction
معامله خاص
Example
Some legal rules apply only to particular transactions.
ترجمه
برخی قواعد حقوقی فقط بر معاملات خاص اعمال میشوند.
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# Stage 5 — Exam‑Style Questions
1
A contract is defined as
A a criminal action
B an agreement recognised by law
C a moral promise
D a social rule
2
The law of contract mainly deals with
A property ownership
B agreements and obligations
C criminal punishment
D constitutional rights
3
Legal rights and duties belong to
A judges
B the parties
C the police
D witnesses
4
If a contract is not performed it may be
A ignored
B enforced
C cancelled automatically
D rewritten
5
Failure to perform a contract is called
A negligence
B breach
C fraud
D mistake
6
Damages are
A criminal penalties
B financial compensation
C prison sentences
D taxes
7
The outline first discusses
A criminal law
B particular cases
C general rules
D court procedures
8
Particular transactions may have
A no rules
B special rules
C criminal sanctions
D constitutional status
9
The law of contract is described as
A simple
B abstract
C criminal
D procedural
10
General rules may not apply
A equally to every contract
B to any contract
C to written contracts
D to oral contracts
11
The phrase “enter into a contract” means
A cancel a contract
B create a contract
C interpret a contract
D enforce a contract
12
The injured party may receive
A punishment
B damages
C imprisonment
D taxes
13
A contract affects
A legal rights and duties
B criminal penalties
C political rights
D tax rules
14
Contract law deals primarily with
A agreements
B crimes
C property titles
D elections
15
A general rule may need
A enforcement
B modification
C punishment
D imprisonment
Answer Key
1 B
2 B
3 B
4 B
5 B
6 B
7 C
8 B
9 B
10 A
11 B
12 B
13 A
14 A
15 B
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